Table 1 and 2 shows the variables that significantly correlate, moderate or mediate GRC for men in general and minority men.
Tables on GRC body { font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 1.5; margin: 40px; background: #fafafa; } h2 { margin-top: 60px; margin-bottom: 20px; color: #333; } h3 { margin-top: 50px; margin-bottom: 15px; color: #444; } table { width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 20px 0 70px 0; /* extra space after each table */ background: #fff; box-shadow: 0 2px 6px rgba(0,0,0,0.1); } th, td { border: 1px solid #ccc; padding: 12px 16px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; } th { background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bold; position: sticky; /* sticky header */ top: 0; z-index: 2; } tr:nth-child(even) { background: #f9f9f9; } p.reference { margin-top: -30px; /* pulls it a bit closer after table spacing */ font-style: italic; color: #333; } p.reference a { color: #0066cc; text-decoration: none; } p.reference a:hover { text-decoration: underline; }Table 1. Correlational, Moderator, and Mediation Variables Related To GRC
| Contextual, Demographic, Multicultural Variables Correlated with GRC For Minority Men |
|---|
| Race, class, ethnicity, age, stage of life, sex (women and transgendered people), socioeconomic status (SES), educational level, marital status, work roles, nationality, acculturation and assimilation, racial & ethnic identity, machismo ideology & caballerismo, cultural values, personal & societal discrimination, states of vulnerability, being violent. |
| Moderators of GRC for Minority Men |
| Less ambivalence & confusion about racial identity, Asian identity, self-esteem, assimilation into the majority culture, traditional African American religious acculturation, Black identity salience, multicultural inclusive racial identity, attitudes toward help seeking, pre-encounter state of racial identity, depression, stress, acculturation, machismo, acculturation, monocultural versus bicultural status, distress, caballerismo, perceived racism, sex typing of self, homonegativity, environmental mastery, purpose in life, internalized heterosexism. |
| Mediators of GRC for Minority Men |
| Racial identity, psychological stress (?), internalized racism, norms of the dominant white culture, machismo ideology, homonegativity, shame, guilt, heterosexist discrimination, internalized heterosexism, self-esteem, negative affect, social sensitivity, avoidant coping, multicultural inclusiveness. |
Table 2. Moderators and Mediators Studies On Gender-Role Conflict (GRC) in Men
Moderators Studies
| Author | GRC as Predictors | Moderator Variables |
|---|---|---|
| Robison & Brewster (2013) | GRC | Internalized Heterosexism & GRC |
| Shek & McEwen (2012) | Less RE | Less ambivalence & confusion about racial identity and Asian identity |
| Pierce (2012) | GRC | Level of support |
| Amato (2012) | GRC | Prisoner’s age, violence, religion, family history of crime |
| Murray & Lewis (2012) | GRC | Age, muscle, height, and body dissatisfaction |
| Courtenay & McCreary (2011) | RABBM | Multiple high risk behavior |
| Amato & MacDonald | GRC | Age, drug use, violence, with homeless men |
| Galligan, Barnett, Brennan, & Israel (2010) | GRC | Resilience |
| Liang, Salcedo, & Miller (2010) | GRC | Machismo, cabalerismo, perceived stress and racism |
| Graef, Tokar, & Kaut | GRC | Attitudes toward career counseling stigma, willingness to seek career counseling |
| Hoyt (2009) | GRC | Emotional expression, emotional processing, age |
| Windle & Smith (2009) | RE & RABBM | Husband’s withdrawal |
| Blashill & Hughes (2009) | GRC | Sextyping of self, distress |
| Wolfram, Mohr, Borchet (2008) | GRC | Worker dissatisfaction, higher irritation, higher depression & anxiety, expressiveness, instrumentality |
| Wester, Christiansan, Vogel, & Wei (2007) | RABBM | ? |
| Thomas (2005) | GRC | Psychological Reactance |
| McCreary, Saucier, & Courtenay (2005) | SPC & CBWFR | Drive for muscularity |
| Schwartz, Waldo, Daniel (2005) | RE | Self-esteem, intimidation, & threats |
| Robison & Schwartz (2004) | White men’s RABBM & SPC | Negative attitudes toward African Americans |
| Ervin (2003) | GRC | Homonegativity, environmental mastery, purpose in life |
| Monk & Ricciardelli (2003) | RE | Alcohol & cannabis use |
| Bruch (2003) | RABBM & RE | Shyness, toughness |
| Cachia (2001) | GRC | Attachment avoidance |
| Fragosa & Kashubeck (2000) | GRC(?) | Depression, stress, machismo |
| Alexander (1999) | RE | Satisfaction and feelings of efficacy as parents |
| Newman (1998) | GRC | Self-silencing and depression |
| Lilly (1999) | GRC | Traditional African American religious acculturation, Black male identity, salience |
| Friedman (2011) | GRC | SES unemployed men (N.S.) |
| Jana-Masri (2011) | GRC | Religiosity to Islam (N.S.) |
See full references here.
Mediator Studies
| Authors – Studies | Predictors | Mediators | Outcome Variables |
|---|---|---|---|
| Vogel, Wester, Hammer, & Owning-Matibag (2013) | RE & RABBM | Stigma | Willingness to refer a friend or family member |
| Shepard & Rickards (2012) | Drive for Muscularity, GRC | Self-stigma of seeking help, attitudes toward seeking help | Intentions to seek help |
| Szymanski & Ikizler (2012) | RABBM & heterosexist discrimination | Internalized Heterosexism | Depression |
| Uy (2011) | Muscularity Ideology | Drinking to cope | Alcohol consumption, Drinking problems |
| Griffin (2011) | Attachment Insecurity | GRC | Sexual compulsivity |
| Groeschel, Wester, & Sedivy (2010) | Negative alcohol-related consequences | GRC | Attitude toward help seeking |
| Choi, Kim, Hwang, & Heppner (2010) | SPC, RE, RABBM | GRC | Depression & instrumentality |
| Wester, Arndt, Sedivy, & Arndt (2010) | Greater risk, fewer benefits | Emotional depression | Stigma associated with counseling |
| Hoyt (2009) | GRC | Self & Social Stigma | Distress explanation |
| Park & Seo (2009) | GRC | Negative affect, social sensitivity | Less positive & willingness to seek counseling |
| Blashill & Vanderwal (2009) | GRC | Negative affect, social sensitivity | Eating disorder symptomology |
| Houle, Mischard, & Chagnon (2009) | GRC | Risk factors of help seeking & social support | Suicidal behavior |
| Szymanski & Carr (2008) | GRC | Self-esteem and avoidant coping | Psychological distress |
| Breiding, Windle, & Smith (2008) | GRC | Husband’s criticism, wives’ criticism & self criticism | Marital adjustment |
| Varvel (2008) | Attitudes toward problem solving | GRC | Psychological functioning |
| Wester, Christianson, Vogel, & Wei (2007) | RE | Social support | Psychological support |
| Wester, Kuo, Vogel (2006) | SPC, RE, RABBM | Avoidant & engagements coping | Psychological stress |
| Batty (2006) | GRC | Task coping | Therapy preference |
| Wester, Vogel, Wei, & McLain (2006) | GRC | Racial identity as internalized racism (self-hatred) | Psychological distress |
| Sipes (2005) | Perceived gender role socialization | Masculinity Ideology | GRC |
| Carter, Williams, & Juby (2005) | GRC | Racial Identity | Severity of problem |
| Serna (2004) | GRC | Personality | Sexual aggression against women |
| Breiding (2004) | GRC | Husband’s observed hostility | Wives’ marital adjustment |
| White (2002) | RE & RABBM | Multicultural Inclusiveness | Attitudes toward help seeking |
| Hill & Fischer (2001) | Masculine Gender Role Components & GRC | Entitlements & General Entitlement | Rape related variables |
| Swenson (1998) | RE | Age | Self-disclosure |
| Tokar & Jome (1998) | GRC | Career choice traditionality | Vocational interests |
| Covell (1998) | GRC | Sexist attitudes, age | Likelihood to sexually harassment |
| Bruch, Berko, Haas (1995) | Personality Attributes | RE | Interpersonal competence |
| Davis (1987) | GRC | Sex Role Salience | ? |
| Baima (2012) | GRC | Spiritual well-being | Psychological Distress (N.S.) |
| Tsan, Day, Schwartz, & Kimbrel (2011) | Behavioral inhibition, Behavioral activation | ? | N.S. |
| Steinfeldt, Rutowski, Vaugh, & Steinfeldt (2011) | GRC | Moral atmosphere and moral functioning | ? N.S. |
| Land, Rochlen, Vaugh (2011) | Maternal bonding | GRC, negative mood regulation | Adult attachment avoidance, N.S. |
| Faircloth (2011) | GRC | Demographics (age, time in the job, education, area of work) | Job satisfaction to explain sex deference, N.S. |
| Hobza & Rochlen (2009) | GRC | Self-esteem | Drive for muscularity, N.S. |
| Daltry (2009) | GRC | Women’s distress tolerance | Quality of athletic life, N.S. |
| Olsen (2000) | GRC | Trait anger | Anger expression |
See full references here.
| Table 1 Correlational, Moderator, and Mediation Variables Related To GRC |
| Contextual, Demographic, Multicultural Variables Correlated with GRC For Minority Men: |
| Race, class, ethnicity, age, stage of life, sex (women and transgendered people), socioeconomic status (SES), educational level, marital status, work roles, nationality, acculturation and assimilation, racial & ethnic identity, machismo ideology & cabalerismo, cultural values, personal & societal discrimination, states of vulnerability, being violent. |
| Moderators of GRC for Minority Men: |
| Less ambivalence & confusion about racial identity, Asian identity, self-esteem, assimilation into the majority culture, traditional African American religious acculturation, Black identity salience, multicultural inclusive racial identity, attitudes toward help seeking, pre-encounter state of racial identity, depression, stress, acculturation, machismo, acculturation, monocultural versus bicultural status, distress, caballerismo, perceived racism, sex typing of self, homonegativity, environmental mastery, purpose in life, internalized heteroesexism |
| Mediators of GRC for Minority Men: |
| Racial identity, psychological stress (?) , internalized racism, norms of the dominant white culture, machismo ideology, homonegativity, shame, guilt, heterosexist discrimination, internalized heterosexism, self-esteem, negative affect, social sensitivity, internalized heterosexism, avoidant coping, and multicultural inclusiveness |
| Table 2. Moderators Studies On Gender-Role Conflict (GRC) Men For In General | ||
| Author | GRC as Predictors | Moderator Variables |
| Robison & Brewster (2013) | GRC | Internalized Heterosexism & GRC |
| Shek & McEwen (2012) | Less RE | Less ambivalence & confusion about racial identity and Asian identity |
| Pierce (2012) | GRC | Level of support |
| Amato (2012) | GRC | Prisoner’s age, violence, religion, family history of crime |
| Murray & Lewis (2012) | GRC | Age, muscle, height, and body dissatisfaction |
| Courtenay & McCreary (2011) | RABBM | Multiple high risk behavior |
| Amato & MacDonald | GRC | Age, drug use, violence, with homeless men |
| Galligan, Barnett, Brennan, & Israel (2010) | GRC | Resilience |
| Liang, Salcedo, & Miller (2010) | GRC | Machismo, cabalerismo, perceived stress and racism |
| Graef, Tokar, & Kaut | GRC | Attitudes toward career counseling stigma, willingness to seek career counseling |
| Hoyt (2009) | GRC | Emotional expression, emotional processing, age |
| Windle & Smith (2009) | RE & RABBM | Husband’s withdrawal |
| Blashill & Hughes (2009) | GRC | Sextyping of self, distress |
| Wolfram, Mohr, Borchet (2008) | GRC | Worker dissatisfaction, higher irritation, higher depression & anxiety, expressiveness, instrumentality |
| Wester, Christiansan, Vogel, & Wei (2007) | RABBM | ? |
| Thomas (2005) | GRC | Psychological Reactance |
| McCreary, Saucier, & Courtenay (2005) | SPC & CBWFR | Drive for muscularity |
| Schwartz, Waldo, Daniel (2005) | RE | Self-esteem, intimidation, & threats |
| Robison & Schwartz (2004) | White men’s RABBM & SPC | Negative attitudes toward African Americans |
| Ervin (2003) | GRC | Homonegativity, environmental mastery, purpose in life |
| Monk & Ricciardelli (2003) | RE | Alcohol & cannabis use |
| Bruch (2003) | RABBM & RE | Shyness, toughness |
| Cachia (2001) | GRC | Attachment avoidance |
| Fragosa & Kashubeck (2000) | GRC(?) | Depression, stress, machismo |
| Alexander (1999) | RE | Satisfaction and feelings of efficacy as parents |
| Newman (1998) | GRC | Self-silencing and depression |
| Lilly (1999) | GRC | Traditional African American religious acculturation, Black male identity, salience |
| Friedman (2011) | GRC | SES unemployed men (N.S.) |
| Jana-Masri (2011) | GRC | Religiosity to Islam (N.S.) |
See full references here.
| Mediator Studies On Gender-Role Conflict (GRC) Men For In General | |||
| Authors – Studies | Predictors | Mediators | Outcome Variables |
| Vogel, Wester, Hammer, & owning-Matibag (2013) | RE & RABBM | Stigma | Willingness to refer a friend or family member |
| Shepard & Rickards (2012) | Drive for Muscularity, GRC | GRC Self-stigma of seeking help, attitudes toward seeking help | Intentions to seek help |
| Szymanski & Ikizler (2012) | RABBM & heterosexist discrimination | Internalized Heterosexism | Depression |
| Uy (2011) | Muscularity
Ideology | Drinking to cope | Alcohol consumption
Drinking problems |
| Griffin (2011) | Attachment
Insecurity | GRC | Sexual compulsivity |
| Groeschel, Wester, & Sedivy, (2010) | Negative alcohol
Related consequences | GRC | Attitude toward help seeking |
| Choi, Kim, Hwang, & Heppner (2010) | SPC, RE, RABBM | GRC | Depression & instrumentality |
| Wester, Arndt, Sedivy, & Arndt (2010) | Greater risk, fewer benefits | Emotional depression | Stigma associated with counseling |
| Hoyt (2009) | GRC | Self & Social Stigma | Distress explanation |
| Park & Seo (2009) | GRC | Negative affect, social sensitivity | Less positive & willingness to seek counseling |
| Blashill & Vanderwal (2009) | GRC | Negative affect, social sensitivity | Eating disorder symptomology |
| Houle, Mischard, & Chagnon (2009) | GRC | Risk factors of help seeking & social support | Suicidal behavior |
| Szymanski & Carr (2008) | GRC | Self-esteem and avoidant coping | Psychological distress |
| Breiding, Windle, & Smith (2008) | GRC | Husband’s criticism, wives’ criticism & self criticism | Marital adjustment |
| Varvel (2008) | Attitudes toward problem solving | GRC | Psychological functioning |
| Wester, Christianson, Vogel, & Wei (2007) | RE | Social support | Psychological support |
| Wester, Kuo, Vogel (2006) | SPC, RE, RABBM | Avoidant & engagements coping | Psychological stress |
| Batty (2006) | GRC | Task coping | Therapy preference |
| Wester, Vogel, Wei, & McLain (2006) | GRC | Racial identity as internalized racism (self-hatred) | Psychological distress |
| Sipes (2005) | Perceived gender role socialization | Masculinity Ideology | GRC |
| Carter, Williams, & Juby (2005) | GRC | Racial Identity | Severity of problem |
| Serna (2004) | GRC | Personality | Sexual aggression against women |
| Breiding (2004) | GRC | Husband’s observed hostility | Wives’ marital adjustment |
| White (2002) | RE & RABBM | Multicultural Inclusiveness | Attitudes toward help seeking |
| Hill & Fischer (2001) | Masculine Gender Role Components & GRC | Entitlements & General Entitlement | Rape related variables |
| Swenson (1998) | RE | Age | Self-disclosure |
| Tokar & Jome (1998) | GRC | Career choice traditionality | Vocational interests |
| Covell (1998) | GRC | Sexist attitudes, age | Likelihood to sexually harassment |
| Bruch, Berko, Haas (1995) | Personality Attributes | RE | Interpersonal competence |
| Davis (1987) | GRC | Sex Role Salience | ? |
| Baima (2012) | GRC | Spiritual well-being | Psychological Distress (N.S.) |
| Tsan, Day, Schwartz, & Kimbrel (2011) | Behavioral inhibition, Behavioral activation | ? | N.S. |
| Steinfeldt, Rutowski, Vaugh, & Steinfeldt (2011) | GRC | Moral atmosphere and moral functioning | ? N.S. |
| Land, Rochlen, Vaugh (2011) | Maternal bonding | GRC, negative mood regulation | Adult attachment avoidance, N.S. |
| Faircloth (2011) | GRC | Demographics (age, time in the job, education, area of work) | Job satisfaction to explain sex deference, N.S. |
| Hobza & Rochlen (2009) | GRC | Self-esteem | Drive for muscularity, N.S. |
| Daltry (2009) | GRC | Women’s distress tolerance | Quality of athletic life, N.S. |
| Olsen (2000) | GRC | Trait anger | Anger expression |
Gender Role Conflict Theory, Research, and Practice 