Research Question 1
- Do masculinity ideologies significantly relate to GRC (SPC, RE, RABBM, CBWFR)? What aspects of masculinity ideology correlates with GRC?
Table 1 Significant Correlations Between Masculinity Ideology Subscales and GRCS Subscales
| Masculinity Ideology Measures & Subscales | Total GRCS Score | SPC2 | RE | RABBM | CBWFR |
| MRNI Berger et al., 2005 | |||||
| Restrictive Emotionality | .34** | .33** | .22** | .34** | .17** |
| Self Reliance | .46** | .32** | .17* | .19* | .11 |
| Rejection of Homosexuals | .28** | .29** | .26** | .46** | .22* |
| Avoidance of Femininity | .37** | .46** | .32** | .41** | .19* |
| Traditional Total Score | .46** | .50** | .31** | .38** | .23* |
| CMNI (Mahalik et al., 2003 | |||||
| Winning | .38*** | .52*** | .18** | .23*** | .02 |
| Emotional Control | .42*** | .10 | .66*** | .39** | .01 |
| Risk Taking | .14 | .23*** | .02 | .06 | .05 |
| Violence | .17** | .14 | .21** | .11 | -.02 |
| Power over Women | .37** | .32** | .30*** | .30*** | .07 |
| Dominance | .44*** | .59*** | .21** | .19** | .16** |
| Playboy | .25** | .18** | .28*** | .19** | .03 |
| Self Reliance | .38*** | .22*** | .42*** | .29*** | .10 |
| Primacy of Work | .30*** | .30*** | .19 | .12 | .21** |
| Disdain for Homosexuals | .36*** | .32*** | .21** | .40*** | .04 |
| Pursuit of Status | .16** | .42*** | -.06 | -.04 | .05 |
| Total Conformity | .56** | .51** | .48*** | .41*** | .09 |
| BMS Walker et al., 2000 | |||||
| No Sissy Stuff | .43** | .39** | .50** | .05 | |
| Big Wheel | .56** | .18* | .40** | .09 | |
| Sturdy Oak | .56** | .30** | .38** | .20** | |
| Give em Hell | .36** | -.02 | .22** | .11 |
Note. * p < .10. ** p < .05. *** p < .01.
1MRNI= Male Role Norm Inventory; CMNI= Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory; BSM= Brannon Masculinity Scale
2SPC= Success, Power Competition; RE= Restrictive Emotionality; RABBM= Restrictive and Affectionate Behavior Between Men; CBWFR= Conflict Between Work and Family Relations
References:
Berger, J.M., Levant, R.F., McMillan, K.K., Kelleher, W., Sellers, A. (2005). Impact of gender role conflict, traditional masculinity ideology, alexithymia, and age on men’s attitudes toward psychological help seeking. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 6, 73-78.
Mahalik, J.R., Locke, B.D., Ludlow, L.H., Diemer, M.A., Scott, R.P., Gottfried, M., Freitas, G. (2003). Development of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 4, 3-25.
Walker, D.F., Tokar, D.M. & Fischer, A.R. (2000). What are the eight popular masculinity-related instruments measuring? Underlying dimensions and their relations to sociosexuality. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 1, 98-108.
Research Question 2
2. Do masculinity ideologies significantly relate to men’s psychological problems? What aspects of masculinity ideologies correlate with men’s problems?
After completing my review of gender role conflict research (O’Neil, 2008), I completed a review of the literature on what variables significantly correlate with masculinity ideology, masculine role norms, and conformity masculine norms significantly (O’Neil, 2010, 2011 a, b). In my review, the research questions was: Does empirical evidence exist that masculinity ideology, gender role conflict and stress, hypermasculinity, and reference group identity dependence significantly correlate with men’s psychological and interpersonal problems?
To answer this question empirical studies that used the following 10 measures were comprehensively reviewed: Masculine Role Norms Scale (MRNS; Thompson & Pleck, 1986), Male Role Norms Inventory (MRNI; Levant et al., 1992), Conformity to Masculine Norm Inventory (CMNI; Mahalik et al., 2003), Masculine Gender Role Stress Scale (MGRS; Eisler & Skidmore, 1987), Gender Role Conflict Scale (O’Neil, 2008), Gender Role Conflict Scale for Adolescents (Blazina, Pisecco, & O’Neil, 2005), Adolescent Masculinity Ideology Relationships Scale (Chu, Porche, & Tolman, 2005), Hypermasculinity Inventory (HMI, Mosher & Sirkin, 1984), Auburn Differentiated Masculinity Inventory (ADMI, Burk, Burkhart & Sikorski, 2004), and Reference Group Identity Dependence Scale (RGIDS, Wade & Gelso, 1998).
Table 2 summarizes the studies reviewed for the 10 published masculinity scales. For each study, every dependent variable that significantly correlated with a masculinity subscales is enumerated. Two hundred and forty-nine studies were reviewed. The summary of the masculinity ideology, norms, and conformity scales (MRNS, CMNI, & MRNI) indicated that attitudes about masculine norms have been statistically correlated with a wide variety of psychological and interpersonal problems in 26 studies. Over 58 dependent variables related to men’s problems have been significantly correlated with masculinity ideology, norms, and conformity. A similar pattern was evident with the GRCS and MGRSS studies. The 10 MGRSS studies correlated with 19 dependent variables and the 200 GRCS studies correlated with 87 separate indices of men’s personal and interpersonal problems. The four studies using hypermasculinity scales (HMI & ADMI) suggested that extremes in masculinity ideology were significantly correlated with 25 separate variables. Furthermore, three studies using the RGIDS found relationships between reference group status and eight male problems. Finally, three studies using the GRCS-A and ADMI indicated that masculinity problems and GRC related to 17 negative outcomes for adolescent boys.
The results in Table 2 represent the first summary of empirical research that correlates multiple measures of masculinity ideology, masculine gender role conflict/stress with men’s psychological and interpersonal problems. A careful study of Table 2 reveals some sobering relationships between specific masculinity constructs and dysfunctional living for men and boys. The results of the 249 studies in Table 2 provide a rather convincing case that the operationalized aspects of the masculinity construct that Addis et al. criticize, have significant relationships to men’s and boy’s psychological and interpersonal problems. These findings are important because until recently, empirical research has not confirmed that men’s psychological problems relate to masculinity constructs. The “hazards of being male” is no longer just a title of a once popular paperback but a documented scientific finding in the research.
Table 2
| Thompson & Pleck’s Male Role Norm Scale (MRNS) Subscales: Status Norm, Toughness Norm, Anti-femininity Norm | |
| Reference Sources | Psychological and Interpersonal Problems Significantly Correlated with MRNS |
| Kilianski (2003) | Negative Attitudes Lesbians; Hostile Sexism; Negative Attitudes Toward Women |
| Thompson & Pleck (1986) | Opposition to the Equal Rights Amendment; Preference for Virgin Wife |
| Abreu, Goodyear, Campos, Newcomb (2000) | Lack of Ethnic Belonging |
| Pleck, Sonenstein, & Ku, (1993) | Suspension From School; Drinking & Use of Drugs; Being Picked Up By Police; Coercive Sex |
| Locke, Newcomb & Good year (2005) | Increased Sexual Risk |
| Blazina, Eddins, Burridge, & Settle, (2007) | Loneliness; Separation-Individuation Problems |
| Wilkinson (2004) | Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men; Fear of Appearing Feminine; Antigay Attitudes |
| Jakupcak, Tull, & Roemer (2005) | Overt Hostility & Aggression |
| Good, Heppner, Hillenband-Gunn, & Wang (1995) | Adversarial Sexual Beliefs; Rape Myths; Psychological Violence |
| Mahalik’s Conformity To Male Role Scale (CMNI) Subscales: Winning, Emotional Control, Risk Taking, Violence, Power Over Women, Dominance, Playboy, Self-Reliance, Primacy of Work, Disdain for Homosexuals, Pursuit of Status, Total Conformity | |
| Reference Sources | Psychological and Interpersonal Problems Significantly Correlated with MRNS |
| Mahalik, Locke, Ludlow, Diemer, Scott, Gottfried, & Freitas,(2003) | Social dominance, aggression, muscularity |
| Mahalik & Lagan, & Morrison (2006) | Unhealthy Alcohol Use; Neglecting Preventive Skin Care; Health Screenings; Not Seeking Help With Emotional Difficulties; Not Going to Health Care Appointments; Getting Into Physical Fights; Difficulty Managing Anger; Taking Risks; Risky Behavior With Automobiles & Sexual Practices |
| Liu & Iwamoto (2007) | Substance Use; Marijuana Use; Binge Drinking |
| Mahalik & Rochlen (2006) | Unhealthy Responses to Depression |
| Mahalik, Levi-Minzi, Walker, (2007) | Health Risks; Few Health Promotion Behaviors |
| Smiler, (2006) | Sexism |
| Mahalik, Burns, & Syzdek, (2007) | Lack of Health Promotion Behaviors |
| Kimmel & Mahalik, (2005) | Internalized Homophobia; Unhealthy Masculine Body Ideal; Distress |
| Burns & Mahalik (2006) | Poor Sexual Functioning |
| Mahalik, Piere, & Wan (2006) | Racial Identity: Pre-encounter Phase; Lower Self Esteem; Psychological Distress |
| Good, Schopp, Thomson, Hathway, Mazurek, Mintz, Sanford-Martens, (2006) | Negative Attitudes About Help Seeking |
| Cohn & Zeichner (2006) | Laboratory Shocks Given During Competition |
| Levant’s Male Role Norms Inventory (MRNI) Subscales: Avoidance of Femininity; Fear and Hatred of Homosexuals; Self Reliance; Aggression; Achievement/Status; Non-Relational Attitudes Toward Sex; Restrictive Emotionality | |
| Reference Sources | Psychological and Interpersonal Problems Significantly Correlated with MRNS |
| Levant, Richmond, Majors, Inclan, Rossello, Heesacker, Rowan (2003) | Alexithymia |
| Wade & Brittan-Powell (2001) | Negative Attitudes About Racial Identity & Women’s Equality; Positive Attitudes Toward Condoning the Sexual Harassment of Women |
| Liu (2002) | Racial Group Marginalization; Ethnocentrism |
| Berger, Levant, McMillan, Kelleher, & Sellers (2005) | Negative Attitudes Toward Help Seeking |
See full references here.
Research Question 3
3. Do the patterns of men’s GRC (SPC, RE, RABBM, CBWFR) correlate with men’s psychological and interpersonal problems? Which problems areas are correlated with GRC?
For each study cited below, GRC has been significantly correlated with one of the 23 dependent variables listed below.
Table 3. GRC and Dependent Variable References
| Depression | Anxiety and Stress | Help Seeking Attitudes | |
| Blazina & Jackson, 2009 Blazina & Watkins, 1996 Brewer, 1998 Burke, 2000 Bursely, 1996 Choi, Kim, Hwang, & Heppner, 2010 Coonerty-Femiano, Kutzman, Femiano, Gemar, Toner, 2001 Cournoyer & Mahalik, 1995 Fragoso & Kashabeck, 2000 Friedman, 2011 Good & Mintz, 1990 Good, Robertson, Fitzgerald, Stevens, & Bartels, 1996 Good & Wood, 1995 Hayashi, 1999 Hoyt, 2009 Jo, 2000 Jones, 1998 Kang, 2001 Kelly, 2000 Kim, Choi, Ha, O’Neil, 2006 Larma, 2007 Mahalik & Cournoyer, 2000 Magovcevic & Addis, 2005 Mertens, 2000 Newman, 1997 Peterson, 1999 Sharpe & Heppner, 1991 Sharpe Heppner, & Dixon, 1995 Shepard, 2002 Simonsen, et al., 2000 Tate, 1998; Theodore &Lloyd, 1997 Thomas, 2008 Wolfram, Mohr, & Burchert, 2009 | Blazina & Watkins, 1996 Burke, 2000 Bursely, 1996 Cournoyer & Mahalik, 1995 Davis, 1998 Hayashi, 1999 Kang, 2001 Jo, 2000 Jones, 1998 Mertens, 2000, 2001 Sharpe & Heppner, 1991 Theodore & Lloyd, 2000 Fragoso & Kashubeck, 2000 Good et al, 1996 Hayes & Mahalik, 2000 Hetzel, 1998 Kratzner, 2003 Leka, 1998 Van Delft, 1998 Walker, 2008 Blashil & Hughes, 2009 Liang, Salcedo & Miller, 2011 Syzmanski & Carr, 2008 Wester, Vogel, Wei, Mclain, 2006 Wolfran et al, 2009 Hoyt, 2009 Sbratta, 2011 Wester, Christianson, Vogel, & Wei, 2007 Wester, Kuo, & Vogel, 2006 Blashill & Hughes, 2009 Stillson,1988 Hetzel, 1998 | Bevan, 2010 Blazina & Marks, 2001 Blazina & Watkins, 1996 Bursley, 1996 Cortese, 2003 Davis & Liang, 2012 Englar-Carlson, 2001 Englar Carlson, 2001 Good & Wood, 1995 Good et al., 1989 Good et al., 2006 Goodwin, 2009 Groeschel, Wester, Sedivy, 2010 Jai, 2001 James, 2006 Mansfield, Addis, Courtenay, 2005 Jan-Marsi, 2011 Lane & Addis, 2005 Larma, 2007 Mendoza & Cummings, 2001 Osborne, 2004 Pederson & Vogel, 2007 Robertson & Fitzgerald, 1992 Rogers, 2009 Segalla, 1996 Shepard, 2009 Simonsen et al., 2000 Steinfeldt & Steinfeldt, 2010 Tsai, 2000 Vogel, Wester, Hammer, Downing-Matibag, 2013 White, 2002 Wisch et al., 1995 Mendoza & Cummings, 2001 Thompson, D. 2009 | |
| Stigma | Discrimination | Religion and Spirituality | Coping and Problem Solving |
| Rogers, 2009 Vogel et al., 2013 Zumas, 2007 Steinfeldt, Steinfeldt, England, & Speight, 2009 Park & Seo, 2009 Wester, Arndt, Sedivy, & Arndt, 2010 Sheppard, 2009 Vogel, Wester, Hammer, Downing-Matibag, 2013 Magovceviv & Addis, 2005 | Liang, Sakedo, Miller 2011 Robinson & Brewster, 2013 Byrce, 2012 Szymananski & Carr, 2008 Zhang, 2012 Szymanski & Ikize, 2012 Szymanski & Carr, 2008 Szymanski & Ikize, 2012 Sanchez, Westefeld, Lui, & Vilain, 2010 | Baima, 2012 Heard, 2009 Jurkovic & Walker, 2006 Lammy, 2012 Laurent, 1997 Lily, 1999 Mahalik & Lagan, 2001 Reiman, 1999 Wilkinson, 2004 | Bergen, 1997 Birthistle, 1999 Jones, 1998 Stanzione, 2005 Strom, 2004 Szymanski & Carr, 2008 Wester, Kuo, & Vogel, 2006 Chamberlin, 1993 Good, Heppner, DeBord, Fischer, 2004 Varvel, 2008 |
| Self Esteem | Personality | Psychoeducational Interventions | Negative Attitudes Toward Women and Others |
| Bingham, Harawa, Williams, 2012 Bursely, 1996 Choi, Kim, Hwang, & Heppner, 2010 Cournoyer, 1994 Davis, 1988 Hayashi, 1999 Hernandez, 2006 Hobza & Rochlen, 2009 Jo, 2000 Laurent, 1997 Lily, 1999 Mahalik et al., 2001 Schwartz et al., 1998 Sharpe & Heppner, 1991 Sharpe et al., 1995 Schwartz & Waldo, 2003 Shek & McEwen, 2012 Swenson, 1998 Vinson, 2011; Symananski & Carr, 2008 | Cortese, 2003 Schwartz, Buboltz, Seeman, & Flye, 2004 Chamykarpour, Pourshahbaz, Dolatshahi, Moshtagh, 2012 Fischer, 2007 Kratzner, 2003 Serna, 2004 Sipes, 2005 Tokar et al., 2000 Arnold & Chartier, 1984 Chartier & Arnold, 1985 Chamberlin, 1993 Fischer, 2007 Kratzner, 2003 Serna, 2004 Sipes, 2005 Tokar et al., 2000 | McAnulty, 1996 Davis & Liddell 2002 Kearney et al., 2004 Schwartz, Magee, Griffin, & Dupuis, 2004 Blazina & Marks, 2001 Robertson & Fitzgerald, 1992 Rochlen, McKelley, & Pituch, 2006 Schwartz & Waldo, 2003 Gertner, 1994 Maton, Anderson, Burke, Hoover, & Manowski 1998 Braverman, O’Neil, & Owen, 1992 Brooks-Harris, Heesacker, & Mejia-Millan, 1996 Nahon, 1992 Moore, 1993 | Kaplan, 1992 Kaplan O’Neil, & Owen, 1993 Serna, 2004 Schwartz & Waldo, 2005 Schwartz et al., 1998 Senn et al., 2000 Harnishfeger, 1998 Covell, 1998 Schwartz, et al., 2005 Rando, Rogers, & Brittan-Powell, 1998 Senn et al., 2000 Serna, 2004 Davis, 1997 Kassing et al., 2005 Rando, et al., 1998 Serna, 2004 Covell, 1998 Glomb & Espelage, 2005 Jacobs, 1996 Kearney, King & Rochlen, 2004 Chase, 2000 Cohn & Zeichner, 2006 Johnston, 2005 Hill & Fisher, 2001 Amato & MacDonald, 2011 Amato, 2012 O’Neil, Owen, Holmes, Dolgopolov, Slastenin, 1994 |
| Overall Interpersonal Functioning | Clients and Therapists | Intimacy, Self-Disclosure, and Relationships With Fathers | Marital Satisfaction, Family Dynamics, and Couple’s GRC |
| Bruch, Berko, & Haase, 1998 Bruch, 2002 Davenport et al., 1998 Breiding, 2004 Breiding, Windle, & Smith, 2008 Celentana, 2000 Land, Rochlen, and Vaugh, 2011 Rochlen & Mahalik, 2004 | Burke, 2000 Coonerty-Femiano et al., 2001 Cusack, Deane, Wilson, & Ciarrochi, 2006 Good et al., 1996 Hayes & Mahalik, 2000 Mertens, 2000 Noyes, 2004 Van Delft, 1998 Schaub & Williams, 2007 Wisch, Mahalik, Hayes, Nutt, 1995 | Chartier & Arnold, 1985 Cournoyer & Mahalik, 1995 Fisher & Good, 1997 Good et al., 1995 Lindley & Schwartz, 2006 Odes, 2008 Sileo, 1996 Sharpe & Heppner, 1991 Rainwater, 2011 Sharpe et al., 1995 Theodore & Lloyd, 2000 Van Hyfte & Rabinowitz, 2001 | Alexander, 1999 Brewer, 1998 Campbell & Snow 1992 Leka, 1998 Scott, 2001 Sharpe et al., 1995 Breiding, 2004 Breiding, Windle & Smith, 2008 Celentana, 2000 Rochlen & Mahalik, 2004 Windel & Smith, 2009 |
| Career Development | Attachment, Bonding, and Family Individuation | Body Image and Muscularity | Alcohol and Substance Abuse |
| Dodson & Borders, 2006 Jome & Tokar, 1997 Jome & Tokar, 1998 Rochlen, Blazina, & Rajhunathan, 2002 Rochlen & O’Brien, 2002 Wolfram, Mohr, and Borchert, 2009 Eimer & Kidd, 2010 Graef, Tokar, and Kaut, 2010 Faircloth, 2011 Rochlemn, Good, & Carver, 2009 | Blazina, Novotny, Stevens, & Hunter, 2008 Blazina & Watkins, 2000 Cachia, 2001 Covell, 1998 DeFranc & Mahalik, 2002 Fischer, 2007 Fischer & Good, 1998 Griffin, 2011 James, 2006 Land, Rochlen, Vaugh, 2011 Napolitano, Mahalik, & Kenny, 1999 Schwartz et al., 2004 Selby, 1999 Siffert, 2012 | Hobza and Rochlen 2009 Howells, 2010 McConville, 2004 McCreary, Saucier, & Courtenay, 2005 Mejias, 2010 Murray & Lewis, 2012 Schwartz, Grammas, Sutherland, Siffert, Bush-King, 2010 Shepard & Rickard, 2012 Schwartz & Tylka, 2008 | Blazina & Watkins, 1996 Fahey, 2003 Good, Schoop, Thomson, Hathaway, Mazurek, Mintz, Sandford-Martens, 2006 Groeschel, Wester, & Sedivy, 2010 Howell, 2010 Kang, 2001 Korucuska & Thombs, 2003 McMahon et al., 2000 Monk & Riccuardelli, 2003 Peterson, 1999 Uy & Massoth, 2013 |
| Alexithymia | Shame and Guilt | Training | College Student Development |
| Berger, Levant, McMillan, Kelleher, & Sellers, 2005 Eicken, 2003 Fischer & Good, 1997 Hayashi, 1999 Shepard, 2002 Levant, Good, Cook, O’Neilo, Hasan, Smalley, 2010 | D. Thomson, 2005 McMahon, Winkel, & Luthar, 2000 Segalla, 1996 Thompkins & Rando, 2003 Thomas, 2008 Thomson, 2005 Vu, 2000 | Wester, Vogel, & Archer, 2004 Spillman, 2007 Sbratta, 2011 Holohan, 2008 Murphy 2001 Murtagh, 2012 Wester & Vogel, 2002 | Davis & Lidell, 2002 Goodwin, 2009 Nelson, 2012 Sosoke, 2011 Syzdek, Beatty, Kellom, & Farr, 2005 Stanzione, 2005 |
See full references here.
Research Question 4
4. Does men’s GRC (SPC, RE, RABBM, & CBWFR) relate to gender role devaluations, restrictions, and violations of self and others in both the intrapersonal and interpersonal realms? For each study cited below, GRC has been significantly correlated with the 23 dependent variables listed below.
Table 4.
| Self-Devaluations | ||
| Internalized heterosexism Szymanski & Carr, 2008 | Self-Objectification Schwartz, Bush-King, 2011 | Perceived Racism Liang, Salcedo, Miller, 2010 |
| Negative feeling about being gay Sanchez, Westefeld, & Liu, 2010 | Internalized Racism Wester, Vogel, Wei, McLain, 2006 | Homonegativity Ervin, 2003 Sanchez, Westefeld, Li, & Vilain, 2010 |
| Self-Esteem Berko, 1994 Bursley, 1996 Cournoyer, 1994 Davis, 1998 Hayashi, 1999 Jo, 2000 Kim et al., 2001 Laurent, 1997 Mahalik et al., 2001 Schwartz et al., 1998 Sharpe & Heppner, 1991 | Depression Blazina & Watkins, 1996 Brewer, 1998 Burke, 2000 Bursely, 1996 Coonerty-Femiano, Jutzman, Femiano, Gemar, Toner, 2001 Cournoyer & Mahalik, 1995 Fragoso & Kashabeck, 2000 Good & Mintz, 1990 Good & Wood, 1995 Hayashi, 1999 Jo, 2000 Jones, 1998 Kang, 2001 (continued in next box) | Depression (continued) Magovcevic & Addis, 2005 Mertens, 2001 Newman, 1997 Peterson, 1999 Good, Robertson, Fitzgerald, Stevens, & Bartels, 1996 Sharpe & Heppner, 1991 Sharpe, Heppner, & Dixon, 1995 Shepard, 2002 Simonsen, et al., 2000 Tate, 1998 Theodore, 1997 |
| Negative Attitudes Toward “Outness” Sanchez, 2002 Sanchez et al., 2009 Kelly, 2000 Kim, Choi, Ha, O’Neil, 2006 Mahalik & Cournoyer, 2000 | Shame & Shame Proneness McMahon, Winkel, & Luthar, 2000 Segalla, 1996 Thompkins & Rando, 2003 Thomson, 2005 | |
| Self-Restrictions | ||
| Emotional Irritation Wolfram, Mohr, & Borchert, 2009 | Emotional Dysregulation Cohn, Jakupcak, Seibert, Hildebrandt, 2010 | Stigma toward career counseling Graef, Tokar, & Kaut, 2010 |
| Hopelessness Birthistle, 1999 Brewer, 1998 | Physical and Psychological Strain Stillson, 1988 | Social and Self Stigma Park & Seo, 2009 |
| Stigma associated with counseling Wester, Arndt, Sedivy, Arndt, 2010 | Difficulty Identifying Feelings Wong, Pituch & Rochlen, 2006 | Global levels of Psychological Stress Hetzel et al., 1998 |
| Greater emotional inexpressiveness Davenport et al., 1998 | Loneliness Blazina, Settle, & Eddins, 2008 | Self-Self disclosure Swenson, 1998 Horhoruw, 1991 |
| Shyness Berko, 1994 Bruch, 2002 Bruch et al., 1998 | Lack of intimacy and male friendship Sileo, 1996 | Dyadic adjustment Breiding, 2005 Brewer, 1998 Campbell & Snow, 1992 |
| Stigma for seeking psychological help Steinfeldt, Steinfeldt, England, Speight; 2009 | Negative Attitudes Toward Problem Solving Chamberlin, 1993 | Parenting dissatisfaction and a lack of parenting self-efficacy Alexander, 1999 |
| Coping Bergen 1997 Birthistle, 1999 Jones, 1998 Stanzione 2005 Strom, 2004 Wester, Kuo et al., 2006 | Marital satisfaction Alexander, 1995 Brewer, 1998 Campbell & Snow, 1992 Sharpe et al., 1995 | Greater career counseling stigma, decreased willingness to engage in career counseling Rochlen et al., 2002 Rochlen & O’Brien, 2002 |
| Personality styles: of neuroticism, introversion, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, aggressiveness, narcissism, Cortese, 2003 Kratzner, 2003 Schwartz et al., 2004 | Immature and neurotic defenses (projection, denial, and isolation) and defenses that are turned against others Mahalik, Cournoyer, DeFranc, Cherry, & Napolitano, 1998 | Alexithymia Berger, Levant, McMillan, Kelleher, & Sellers, 2005 Eicken & Boswell, 2002 Fischer & Good, 1997 Hayashi, 1999 Shepard, 2002 |
| Intimacy Chartier & Arnold, 1985 Cournoyer & Mahalik, 1995 Fisher & Good, 1997 Good et al., 1995 Lindley & Schwartz, 2006 Sharpe & Heppner, 1991 Sharpe et al., 1995 Theodore & Lloyd, 2001 Van Hyfte & Rabinowitz, 2001 | Stress Fragoso & Kashubeck, 2000 Good et al., 2004 Good et al., 1996 Hayes & Mahalik, 2000 Hetzel, 1998 Hetzel, Davenport, & Brooks, 1998 Kratzner, 2003 Leka, 1998 Van Delft, 1998 | Marital adjustment, lower daily marital happiness, greater depressive symptomatology, and greater negative affect for women Breiding, 2003, 2004 Breiding & Smith, 2002 Celentana, 2000 |
| Anxiety Blazina & Watkins, 1996 Burke, 2000 Bursely, 1996 Cournoyer & Mahalik, 1995 Davis, 1988 Hayashi, 1999 Kang, 2001 Jo, 2000 Jones, 1998 Mertens, 2000, 2001 Sharpe & Heppner, 1991 Theodore & Lloyd, 2000 | Psychological distress including problems with hostility, compulsiveness, social discomfort, paranoia, psychoticism, obsessive-complusivity, and interpersonal sensitivity Good et al., 1996 Hayes & Mahalik, 2000 | Attachment Problems To Parents Blazina & Watkins, 2000 Cachia, 2001 Covell, 1998 DeFranc & Mahalik, 2002 Fischer, in press Fischer & Good, 1998 James, 2006 Napolitano, Mahalik, & Kenny, 1999 Schwartz, 2001 Schwartz et al., 2004 Selby, 1999 |
| Personality: Styles, Types, Models, Ego Identity, & Authoritarianism Cortese, 2003 Schwartz, Buboltz, Seeman, & Flye, 2004 Fischer, in press Kratzner, 2003 Serna, 2004 Sipes, 2005 Tokar et al., 2000 Arnold & Chartier, 1984 Chartier & Arnold, 1985 Rounds, 1994 Chamberlin, 1993 | Help seeking attitudes and preference for help Blazina & Marks, 2001 Blazina & Watkins, 1996 Bursley, 1996 Cortese, 2003 Englar-Carlson, 2001 Englar Carlson & Vandiver, 2001 Good & Wood, 1995 Good et al., 1989 Good et al., 2006 James, 2006 Lane & Addis, 2005 Osborne, 2004 Robertson & Fitzgerald, 1992 Segalla, 1996 Simonsen et al., 2000 Tsai, 2000 White, 2002 Wisch et al., 1995 | |
| Self-Violations | ||
| Low and high health risk Courtenay & McCreary, 2010 | Chronic self-destructiveness Naranjo, 2001 | High risk behaviors Courtenay & McCreary 2001 |
| Negative alcohol-related consequences Groweschel, Wester, Sedivy, 2010 | Eating disorder symptomatology Blashill & Vander Wal, 2009 | Suicide attempts, acceptability, and risk Houle, Mishara, Chagnon, 2007 |
| Self Objectification Schwartz, Grammas, Sutherland, Siffert, & Bush-King, 2011 | Substance/alcohol abuse Blazina & Watkins, 1996 Fahey, 2003 Kang, 2001 Korucuska & Thombs, 2003 McMahon et al., 2000 Monk & Riccuardelli, 2003 Peterson, 1999 | Suicidal probability, amount of GRC for suicidal vs. non-suicidal Borthwick, 1997 Borthick et al., 1997 Houle, 2004 |
| Devaluations By Others No data to report | Restrictions By Others No data to report | Violations By Others No data to report |
| Devaluation of Others | ||
| Husbands’ GRC reported spousal criticism Breiding, 2003 | Sex role stereotyping Rando, Rogers, & Brittan-Powell, 1998 | Negative attitudes toward African Americans Robinson & Schwartz, 2004 |
| Homophobic and antigay attitudes Kassing et al., 2005 Lindley & Schwartz, 2006 Rounds, 1994 Schwartz, Tylka, & Hood, 2005 Van Hyfte, 1999 Walker et al., 2000 Wilkinson, 2004 | Low sex role egalitarianism Addelston, 1995 Englar-Carlson & Vandiver, 2001 Tokar, Fischer, & Staub, 1998 | Restriction of Others No data to report |
| Violations of Others | ||
| Hostile sexism Covell, 1998 Schwartz, et al., 2005 | Abusive behaviors and coercion Schwartz et al., 1998 Senn et al., 2000 | Dating violence Harnishfeger, 1998 |
| Sexually aggressive behaviors and likelihood of forcing sex Kaplan, 1992 Kaplan O’Neil, & Owen, 1993 Serna, 2004 | Hostility towards women Rando, Rogers, & Brittan-Powell, 1998 Senn et al., 2000 Serna, 2004 | Rape myth acceptance Davis, 1997 Kassing et al., 2005 Rando, et al., 1998 Serna, 2004 |
| Positive attitudes toward and tolerance for sexual harassment Covell, 1998 Glomb & Espelage, 2005 Jacobs, 1996 Kearney, King & Rochlen, 2004 | Self Reported Violence & Aggression Amato, 2005 Chase, 2000 Cohn & Zeichner, 2006 Johnston, 2005 | Actual Destructive or Violent Behavior Toward Others Amato, 2005 Breiding, 2003, 2004, Breiding & Smith, 2002; Johnston, 2005, Kaplan et al., 1993 |
See full references here.
Research Question 5
5. Is there evidence that gender role devaluations, restrictions, and violations relate to minority men’s psychological problems?
Table 5. Diversity Research on Gender Role Conflict Self Devaluations, Restrictions and Violations
| Gender Role Conflict Self-Devaluations | Authors | Group |
| Internalized heterosexism | Szymanski & Carr, 2008 | Gay men |
| Homonegativity | Ervin, 2003 | Gay men |
| Negative attitude toward “Being Out” | Sanchez, 2005 | Gay men |
| Negative feeling about being gay | Sanchez, Westefeld, Liu, & Vilain, 2010 | Gay men |
| Self-hate from racism | Wester, Vogel, Wei, & McLain, 2006 | African American Men |
| Depression | Brewer Coonerty-Femiano, Kutzman, Femiano, Gemar, & Toner, 2001 Fragoso & Kashubeck, 2000 Hayashi, 1999 Jo, 2000; Kang, 2001; Kim, Choi, Heppner, 2012 Jones, 1995; Simonsen, Blazina, & Watkins, 2000 Tate, 1998; Theodore, 2007 (?) | African American Men Sexual Abuse Victims Mexican American Men Japanese Men Korean Men Gay men Australian Men |
| Self-esteem | Hayashi, 1999 Jo, 2000; Kim, Hwang, & Choi, 2005 Laurent, 1997 Mahalik, Locke, Theordore, Cournoyer, & Lloyd, 2001 | Japanese Men Korean Men African American Men Australian Men |
| Shame | McMahon, Winkel, & Luthar 2009 | African American |
| Gender Role Conflict Self Restrictions | Author | Group |
| Coping | Birthistle, 1999 Jones, 1998 Wester, Kuo, & Vogel, 2006 | Irish Men Gay Men Chinese Canadian Adolescents |
| Anxiety | Hayashi, 1999 Kang, 2001 Jo, 2000 Jones, 1998 Theodore & Lloyd, 2000 | Japanese Men Korean college students Korean Men Gay Men Australian Men |
| Stress | Fragoso & Kashubeck, 2000; Lekd (?) | Mexican American Men |
| Alexithymia | Hayashi, 1999 | Japanese Men |
| Hopelessness | Birthistle, 1999 Brewer, 1998 | Irish Men African American Men |
| Intimacy | Chartier & Arnold, 1985 Theodore & Lloyd, 2000 Van Hyfte & Rabinowitz, 2001 | Canadian Men Australian Men Gay Men |
| Help Seeking Attitudes | James (2006) | Canadian Men |
| Gender Role Conflict Self Violations | Authors | Group |
| Eating Disorder Symptomology | Glashill & Vanderwal, 2009 | Gay Men |
| Substance Use & Abuse | Kang, 2001 Monk & Ricciardelli, 2003 | Korean college students Australian Men |
| Chronic Self-Destructiveness | Naranjo, 2001 | Gay Men |
| Suicidal Attempts or Risk | Houle, Mishara, & Chagnon, 2009 | Canadian Men |
See full references here.
Research Question 6
6. Do Diversity and Multicultural Indices Relate To , Moderate, or Mediate Men’s Gender Role Conflict?
Table 6a shows the variables that correlate, moderate, or mediate GRC for minority men.
Table 6a.
| Contextual, Demographic, Multicultural Variables Correlated with GRC For Minority Men: Race, class, ethnicity, age, stage of life, sex (women and transgendered people), socioeconomic status (SES), educational level, marital status, work roles, nationality, acculturation and assimilation, racial & ethnic identity, machismo ideology & cabalerismo, cultural values, personal & societal discrimination, states of vulnerability, being violent. |
| Moderators of GRC for Minority Men: Less ambivalence & confusion about racial identity, Asian identity, self-esteem, assimilation into the majority culture, traditional African American religious acculturation, Black identity salience, multicultural inclusive racial identity, attitudes toward help seeking, pre-encounter state of racial identity, depression, stress, acculturation, machismo, acculturation, monocultural versus bicultural status, distress, caballerismo, perceived racism, sex typing of self, homonegativity, environmental mastery, purpose in life, internalized heteoresexism |
| Mediators of GRC for Minority Men: Racial identity, psychological stress (?) , internalized racism, norms of the dominant white culture, machismo ideology, homonegativity, shame, guilt, heterosexist discrimination, internalized heterosexism, self-esteem, negative affect, social sensitivity, internalized heterosexism, avoidant coping, and multicultural inclusiveness |
Table 6b shows the variables that significantly moderate or mediate GRC for men in general.
Table 6b. Moderators Studies and Gender-Role Conflict (GRC)
| Author | GRC as Predictors | Moderator Variable |
| Robison & Brewster (2013) | GRC | Internalized Heterosexism & GRC |
| Shek & McEwen (2012) | Less RE | Less ambivalence & confusion about racial identity and Asian identity |
| Pierce (2012) | GRC | Level of support |
| Amato (2012) | GRC | Prisoner’s age, violence, religion, family history of crime |
| Murray & Lewis (2012) | GRC | Age, muscle, height, and body dissatisfaction |
| Courtenay & McCreary (2011) | RABBM | Multiple high risk behavior |
| Amato & MacDonald | GRC | Age, drug use, violence, with homeless men |
| Galligan, Barnett, Brennan, & Israel (2010) | GRC | Resilience |
| Liang, Salcedo, & Miller (2010) | GRC | Machismo, cabalerismo, perceived stress and racism |
| Graef, Tokar, & Kaut | GRC | Attitudes toward career counseling stigma, willingness to seek career counseling |
| Hoyt (2009) | GRC | Emotional expression, emotional processing, age |
| Windle & Smith (2009) | RE & RABBM | Husband’s withdrawal |
| Blashill & Hughes (2009) | GRC | Sextyping of self, distress |
| Wolfram, Mohr, Borchet (2008) | GRC | Worker dissatisfaction, higher irritation, higher depression & anxiety, expressiveness, instrumentality |
| Wester, Christiansan, Vogel, & Wei (2007) | RABBM | ? |
| Thomas (2005) | GRC | Psychological Reactance |
| McCreary, Saucier, & Courtenay (2005) | SPC & CBWFR | Drive for muscularity |
| Schwartz, Waldo, Daniel (2005) | RE | Self-esteem, intimidation, & threats |
| Robison & Schwartz (2004) | White men’s RABBM & SPC | Negative attitudes toward African Americans |
| Ervin (2003) | GRC | Homonegativity, environmental mastery, purpose in life |
| Monk & Ricciardelli (2003) | RE | Alcohol & cannabis use |
| Bruch (2003) | RABBM & RE | Shyness, toughness |
| Cachia (2001) | GRC | Attachment avoidance |
| Fragosa & Kashubeck (2000) | GRC(?) | Depression, stress, machismo |
| Alexander (1999) | RE | Satisfaction and feelings of efficacy as parents |
| Newman (1998) | GRC | Self-silencing and depression |
| Lilly (1999) | GRC | Traditional African American religious acculturation, Black male identity, salience |
| Friedman (2011) | GRC | SES unemployed men (N.S.) |
| Jana-Masri (2011) | GRC | Religiosity to Islam (N.S.) |
TABLE 6c. Mediator Studies
| Authors – Studies | Predictors | Mediators | Outcome Variables |
| Vogel, Wester, Hammer, & owning-Matibag (2013) | RE & RABBM | Stigma | Willingness to refer a friend or family member |
| Shepard & Rickards (2012) | Drive for Muscularity, GRC | GRC Self-stigma of seeking help, attitudes toward seeking help | Intentions to seek help |
| Szymanski & Ikizler (2012) | RABBM & heterosexist discrimination | Internalized Heterosexism | Depression |
| Uy (2011) | Muscularity Ideology | Drinking to cope | Alcohol consumption Drinking problems |
| Griffin (2011) | Attachment Insecurity | GRC | Sexual compulsivity |
| Groeschel, Wester, & Sedivy, (2010) | Negative alcohol Related consequences | GRC | Attitude toward help seeking |
| Choi, Kim, Hwang, & Heppner (2010) | SPC, RE, RABBM | Low self-esteem | Depression & instrumentality |
| Wester, Arndt, Sedivy, & Arndt (2010) | Greater risk, fewer benefits | GRC | Stigma associated with counseling |
| Hoyt (2009) | GRC | Emotional depression | Distress explanation |
| Park & Seo (2009) | GRC | Self & Social Stigma | Less positive & willingness to seek counseling |
| Blashill & Vanderwal (2009) | GRC | Negative affect, social sensitivity | Eating disorder symptomology |
| Houle, Mischard, & Chagnon (2009) | GRC | Risk factors of help seeking & social support | Suicidal behavior |
| Szymanski & Carr (2008) | GRC | Self-esteem and avoidant coping | Psychological distress |
| Breiding, Windle, & Smith (2008) | GRC | Husband’s criticism, wives’ criticism & self criticism | Marital adjustment |
| Varvel (2008) | Attitudes toward problem solving | GRC | Psychological functioning |
| Wester, Christianson, Vogel, & Wei (2007) | RE | Social support | Psychological support |
| Wester, Kuo, Vogel (2006) | SPC, RE, RABBM | Avoidant & engagements coping | Psychological stress |
| Batty (2006) | GRC | Task coping | Therapy preference |
| Wester, Vogel, Wei, & McLain (2006) | GRC | Racial identity as internalized racism (self-hatred) | Psychological distress |
| Sipes (2005) | Perceived gender role socialization | Masculinity Ideology | GRC |
| Carter, Williams, & Juby (2005) | GRC | Racial Identity | Severity of problem |
| Serna (2004) | GRC | Personality | Sexual aggression against women |
| Breiding (2004) | GRC | Husband’s observed hostility | Wives’ marital adjustment |
| White (2002) | RE & RABBM | Multicultural Inclusiveness | Attitudes toward help seeking |
| Hill & Fischer (2001) | Masculine Gender Role Components & GRC | Entitlements & General Entitlement | Rape related variables |
| Swenson (1998) | RE | Age | Self-disclosure |
| Tokar & Jome (1998) | GRC | Career choice traditionality | Vocational interests |
| Covell (1998) | GRC | Sexist attitudes, age | Likelihood to sexually harassment |
| Bruch, Berko, Haas (1995) | Personality Attributes | RE | Interpersonal competence |
| Davis (1987) | GRC | Sex Role Salience | ? |
| Baima (2012) | GRC | Spiritual well-being | Psychological Distress (N.S.) |
| Tsan, Day, Schwartz, & Kimbrel (2011) | Behavioral inhibition, Behavioral activation | (?) | N.S. |
| Steinfeldt, Rutowski, Vaugh, & Steinfeldt (2011) | GRC | Moral atmosphere and moral functioning | ? N.S. |
| Land, Rochlen, Vaugh (2011) | Maternal bonding | GRC, negative mood regulation | Adult attachment avoidance N.S. |
| Faircloth (2011) | GRC | Demographics (age, time in the job, education, area of work) | Job satisfaction to explain sex deference N.S. |
| Hobza & Rochlen (2009) | GRC | Self-esteem | Drive for muscularity N.S. |
| Daltry (2009) | GRC | Women’s distress tolerance | Quality of athletic life N.S. |
| Olsen (2000) | GRC | Trait anger | Anger expression |
See full references here.
Research Question 7
7. Do situational dynamics, micro-contexts or environmental cues moderate, mediate, or cause GRC?
See Situational GRC Research Models by clicking here.
O’Neil and Denke Refererences (2016)
This file provides references to a summary of GRC research found in:
O’Neil, J.M. & Denke, R. (2016). An Empirical review of the gender role conflict research: New conceptual models and research paradigms. In J. Wong and S. Wester (Eds.) APA Handbook of the Psychology of Men and Masculinities. (pp 51-80), Washington, D.C.: APA Books.
These files also have many of the references to the research questions discussed in this part of the web page.
References from O’Neil & Denke (2016)
References for Masculine Ideology
Table 3 Citations and References
Self Devaluations and Self Restrictions
Diversity Research on Gender Role Conflict Self Devaluations, Restrictions and Violations
Gender Role Conflict Theory, Research, and Practice 